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Clinical Examination of Superior Labral Tears – What is the Best Special Test for a SLAP Tear?

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What is the best special test for a SLAP tear?  There are many options all with varying efficacy, however, without a proper understanding of the different types of SLAP tears and mechanisms of injury, it’s difficult to select the best special test for SLAP tears.

Remember, SLAP tears are just one type of shoulder labral tears, as the superior labrum is just a portion of the glenoid labrum.

Clinical examination to detect SLAP lesions is often difficult because of the common presence of concomitant pathology in patients presenting with this type of condition. Andrews has shown that 45% of patients (and 73% of baseball pitchers) with superior labral lesions have concomitant partial thickness tears of the supraspinatus portion of the rotator cuff.  Mileski and Snyder reported that 29% of their patients with SLAP lesions exhibited partial thickness rotator cuff tears, 11% complete rotator cuff tears, and 22% Bankart lesions of the anterior glenoid.

The clinician should keep in mind that while labral pathologies frequently present as repetitive overuse conditions, such as those commonly seen in overhead athletics, the patient may also describe a single traumatic event such as a fall onto the outstretched arm or an episode of sudden traction, or a blow to the shoulder.  This is an extremely important differentiation you need to make when selecting which tests you should perform.

A wide variety of potentially useful special test maneuvers have been described to help determine the presence of labral pathology.  Let’s review some of them now.

This article is part of a 4-part series on SLAP Lesions

Special Tests for a SLAP Tear

There are literally dozens of special tests for SLAP tears of the shoulder.  I am going to share some of the most popular SLAP tests.

Active Compression Test

active compression SLAP testThe active compression test is used to evaluate labral lesions and acromioclavicular joint injuries. This could be the most commonly performed test, especially in orthopedic surgeons.  I am not sure why, though, I do not think it is the best.

The shoulder is placed into approximately 90 degrees of elevation and 30 degrees of horizontal adduction across the midline of the body. Resistance is applied, using an isometric hold, in this position with both full shoulder internal and external rotation (altering humeral rotation
against the glenoid in the process). A positive test for labral involvement is when pain is elicited when testing with the shoulder in internal rotation and forearm in pronation (thumb pointing toward the floor). Symptoms are typically decreased when tested in the externally rotated position or the pain is localized at the acromioclavicular (AC) joint.

O’Brien et al found this maneuver to be 100% sensitive and 95% specific as it relates to assessing the presence of labral pathology.  These results are outstanding, maybe too outstanding. Pain provocation using this test is common, challenging the validity of the results. In my experience, the presence of deep and diffuse glenohumeral joint pain is most indicative of the presence of a SLAP lesion. Pain localized in the AC joint or in the posterior rotator cuff is not specific for the presence of a SLAP lesion. The posterior shoulder symptoms are indicative of provocative strain on the rotator cuff musculature when the shoulder is placed in this position.

The challenging part of this test is that many patients will be symptomatic from overloading their rotator cuff in this disadvantageous position.

  • Sensitivity: 47-100%, Specificity: 31-99%, PPV: 10-94%, NPV: 45-100% (a lot of variability between various authors)

Biceps Load Test

The biceps load testBiceps Load SLAP Test involves placing the shoulder in 90 degrees of abduction and maximally externally rotated. At maximal external rotation and with the forearm in a supinated position, the patient is instructed to perform a biceps contraction
against resistance. Deep pain within the shoulder during this contraction is indicative of a SLAP lesion.
The original authors further refined this test with the description of the biceps load II maneuver. The examination technique is similar, although the shoulder is placed into a position of 120 degrees of abduction rather than the originally described 90 degrees.  The biceps load II test was noted to have greater sensitivity than the original test.  I like both of these tests and usually perform them both.
  • Sensitivity: 91%, Specificity: 97%, PPV: 83%, NPV: 98% for Biceps Load I; Sensitivity: 90%, Specificity: 97%, PPV: 92%, NPV: 96% for Biceps Load II

Compression Rotation Test

Compression Rotation SLAP TestThe compression-rotation test is performed with the patient in the supine position. The glenohumeral joint is manually compressed through the long axis of the humerus while the humerus is passively rotated back and forth in an attempt to trap the labrum within the joint. This is typically performed in a variety of small and large circles while providing joint compression when performing this maneuver, in an attempt to grind the labrum between the glenoid and the humeral head. Furthermore, the examiner may attempt to detect anterosuperior labral lesions by placing the arm in a horizontally abducted position while providing an anterosuperior directed force. In contrast, the examiner may also horizontally adduct the humerus and provide a posterosuperiorly directed force when performing this test.  I think of this test as “exploring” the joint for a torn labrum.  It is hit or miss for me.

  • Sensitivity: 24%, Specificity: 76%, PPV: 90%, NPV: 9%

Dynamic Speed’s Test

dynamic speeds SLAP testThe Speed’s biceps tension test has been found to accurately reproduce pain in instances of SLAP lesions.  I have personally not seen this to be true very often.

It is performed by resisting downwardly applied pressure to the arm when the shoulder is positioned in 90 degrees of forward elevation with the elbow extended and forearm supinated. Clinically, we also perform a new test for SLAP lesions.

Kevin Wilk and I developed a variation of the original Speed’s test, which we refer to as the “Dynamic Speed’s Test.”  (I came up with the name, what do you think?)  During this maneuver, the examiner provides resistance against both shoulder elevation and elbow flexion simultaneously as the patient elevates the arm overhead. Deep pain within the shoulder is typically produced with shoulder elevation above 90 degrees if this test is positive for labral pathology.

Anecdotally, we have found this maneuver to be more sensitive than the originally described static Speed’s test in detecting SLAP lesions, particularly in the overhead athlete.  To me, it seems like you only get symptoms with greater degrees of elevation, making the original Speed’s Test less sensitive in my hands.

  • Sensitivity: 90%, Specificity: 14%, PPV: 23%, NPV: 83% for the Speed’s test

Clunk Test and Crank Tests

clunk crank slap testThe clunk test is performed with the patient supine. The examiner places one hand on the posterior aspect of the glenohumeral joint while the other grasps the bicondylar aspect of the humerus at the elbow. The examiner’s proximal hand provides an anterior translation of the humeral head while simultaneously rotating the humerus externally with the hand holding the elbow.  The mechanism of this test is similar to that of a McMurray’s test of the knee menisci, where the examiner is attempting to trap the torn labrum between the glenoid and the humeral head. A positive test is produced by the presence of a clunk or grinding sound and is indicative of a labral tear.

The crank test can be performed with the patient either sitting or supine. The shoulder is elevated to 160 degrees in the plane of the scapula. An axial load is then applied by the examiner while the humerus is internally and externally rotated in this position. A positive test typically elicits pain with external rotation. Symptomatic clicking or grinding may also be present during this maneuver.  These tests seem to do well with finding a bucket-handle tear of from a Type III or Type IV SLAP lesion more than anything else for me.

  • Sensitivity: 39-91%, Specificity: 56-93%, PPV: 41-94%, NPV: 29-90%

2 New(er) Special Tests for SLAP Lesions

In addition to the classic SLAP tests that have been described, there are two additional tests that gained popularity more recently.

I wanted to share a video that I have on YouTube that demonstrates these two tests. These were actually published in a paper I wrote in JOSPT a few years ago, but I have modified them a little and wanted to share. These two tests are both excellent at detecting peel-back SLAP lesions, specifically in overhead throwing athletes, but are useful for any population. I share these two tests because I know that there is a lot of confusion regarding the “best” test. These may not be them, but in my hands, both have been extremely helpful and, more importantly, accurate.

Pronated Load SLAP Test

The first test is the “Pronated Load Test,” it is performed in the supine position with the shoulder abducted to 90° and externally rotated. However, the forearm is in a fully pronated position to increase tension on the biceps and subsequently the labral attachment. When maximal external rotation is achieved, the patient is instructed to perform a resisted isometric contraction of the biceps to simulate the peel-back mechanism. This test combines the active bicipital contraction of the biceps load test with the passive external rotation in the pronated position, which elongates the biceps. A positive test is indicated by discomfort within the shoulder.

Resisted Supination External Rotation SLAP Test

The second test was described by Myers in AJSM, called the “Resisted Supination External Rotation Test.” Dr. Myers was a fellow at ASMI and a good friend of mine, he really wanted to call this the SUPER test (for SUPination ER) but I was one of many that advised him against this for obvious reasons!

During this test, the patient is positioned in 90° of shoulder abduction, and 65-70° of elbow flexion and the forearm in a neutral position. The examiner resists against a maximal supination effort while passively externally rotating the shoulder. Myers noted that this test simulates the peel-back mechanism of SLAP injuries by placing maximal tension on the long head of the biceps by supinating.

Myers’ study of 40 patients revealed that this test had better sensitivity (82.8%), specificity (81.8%), positive predictive value (PPV) (92.3%), negative predictive value (NPV) (64.3%), and diagnostic accuracy (82.5%) compared to the crank test and extremely popular O’Brien’s or active compression test. A positive test is indicated by discomfort within the shoulder.

When Do You Perform These Tests?

Now that you know a bunch of special tests for SLAP tears, the real key is understanding “when” to pick each test.  In my mind, they all are slightly different and may even be better at detecting different types of SLAP lesions.  I have an Inner Circle webinar that discusses this and shows you my clinical algorithm on how and why I perform special tests to diagnose a SLAP tear:

Learn Exactly How I Evaluate and Treat the Shoulder

shoulder seminarIf you want to learn even more about the shoulder, my online course will teach you exactly how I evaluate and treat the shoulder.  It is packed with tons of educational content that will help you master the shoulder, including detailed information on the clinical examination and treatment of SLAP tears.

Special Tests to Diagnose SLAP Tears

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The latest Inner Circle webinar recording on Special Tests to Diagnose SLAP Tears is now available.

Special Tests to Diagnose SLAP Tears

Special Tests to Diagnose SLAP Tears

This month’s Inner Circle webinar is on Special Tests to Diagnose SLAP Tears.  In this presentation, I review the many, many different SLAP special tests that exist and explain when and why you would choose certain ones for different people.

This webinar will cover:

  • Why there are so many different SLAP special tests
  • The common mechanisms of injury for SLAP tears
  • Why a good subjective history should lead your clinical examination
  • How to choose specific special tests for specific people
  • How to perform my most commonly used SLAP tests

To access this webinar:

How do SLAP Tears Occur: Mechanisms of Injury to the Superior Labrum

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SLAP tears of the shoulder can occur for a variety of reasons, from a traumatic fall to wear-and-tear over time, to more specific injuries that we see in overhead athletes like baseball players.

But that’s a common question I here often.

Now that we have discussed the different types and classification of SLAP tears to the superior labrum, I wanted to now talk about how these shoulder injuries occur. There are several injury mechanisms that are speculated to be responsible for creating a SLAP lesion. These mechanisms range from single traumatic events to repetitive microtraumatic injuries.

This article is part of a 4-part series on SLAP Lesions

Traumatic SLAP Injuries

mechanism of slap tearTraumatic events, such as falling on an outstretched arm or bracing oneself during a motor vehicle accident, may result in a SLAP lesion due to compression of the superior joint surfaces superimposed with subluxation of the humeral head. Snyder referred to this as a pinching mechanism of injury. Other traumatic injury mechanisms include direct blows, falling onto the point of the shoulder, and forceful traction injuries of the upper extremity.

To be honest with you, I don’t know if this is actually the underlying cause of the SLAP lesion. I have questioned this theory in the past and don’t know the answer, but part of me at least wonders if these patients already had a certain degree of pathology to their superior labrum and the acute injury led to a MRI and diagnosis of a SLAP tear.

Essentially the MRI may have found an old SLAP tear.

Repetitive Overhead Activities

Repetitive overhead activity, such as throwing a baseball and other overhead sports, is another common mechanism of injury frequently responsible for producing SLAP injuries.

This is the type of SLAP lesion that we most often see in our athletes. In 1985, Dr. Andrews first hypothesized that SLAP pathology in overhead throwing athletes was the result of the high eccentric activity of the biceps brachii during the arm deceleration and follow-through phases of the overhead throw. To determine this, they applied electrical stimulation to the biceps during arthroscopic evaluation and noted that the biceps contraction raised the labrum off of the glenoid rim.

Peel Back SLAP Tear

Burkhart and Morgan have since hypothesized a “peel back” mechanism that produces SLAP lesion in the overhead athlete. They suggest that when the shoulder is placed in a position of abduction and maximal external rotation, the rotation produces a twist at the base of the biceps, transmitting torsional force to the anchor.

This mechanism has received a lot of attention and several studies seem to show its accuracy.

Pradham measured superior labral strain in a cadaveric model during each phase of the throwing motion. They noted that increased superior labral strain occurred during the late-cocking phase of throwing.

Another study from ASMI simulated each of these mechanisms using cadaveric models. Nine pairs of cadaveric shoulders were loaded to biceps anchor complex failure in either a position of simulated in-line loading (similar to the deceleration phase of throwing) or simulated peel back mechanism (similar to the cocking phase of overhead throwing). Results showed that 7 of 8 of the in-line loading group failed in the midsubstance of the biceps tendon with 1 of 8 fracturing at the supraglenoid tubercle. However, all 8 of the simulated peel back group failures resulted in a type II SLAP lesion. The ultimate strength of the biceps anchor was significantly different when the 2 loading techniques were compared. The biceps anchor demonstrated significantly higher ultimate strength with the in-line loading (508 N) as opposed to the ultimate strength seen during the peel back loading mechanism (202 N).

You can see photos of the study below.  The first photo is a normal glenoid with the labrum and attaching long head of the biceps.  The second photo is the simulation of the traction and eccentric biceps contraction.  The final photo is simulation of the peel-back lesion.

SLAP injuries example

In theory, SLAP lesions most likely occur in overhead athletes from a combination of these 2 previously described forces. The eccentric biceps activity during deceleration may serve to weaken the biceps-labrum complex, while the torsional peel back force may result in the posterosuperior detachment of the labral anchor.

shoulder seminarLearn Exactly How I Evaluate and Treat the Shoulder

If you want to learn even more about the shoulder, my online course will teach you exactly how I evaluate and treat the shoulder.  It is packed with tons of educational content that will help you master the shoulder, including detailed information on the clinical examination and treatment of SLAP tears.

What Exactly Is a SLAP Tear? Top 5 Things You Need to Know About a Superior Labral Lesion

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Superior Labral SLAP TearA SLAP tear is an injury to the superior part of the labrum in the shoulder.  The term SLAP stands for Superior Labral tear Anterior to Posterior.  This is a very common diagnosis for shoulder injuries.  There many different variations of SLAP tears, which have different levels of severity and treatment strategies.  In the past, surgeons would want to operate on all SLAP tears but we have learned that some do well without surgery.  In fact, some SLAP tears aren’t even worrisome .

Understanding how a SLAP lesion occurs and what exactly is happening pathologically is extremely important to diagnose and treat these shoulder injuries appropriately.

This article is part of a 4-part series on SLAP Lesions

Classification of SLAP Lesions

As you can see in the figure, the long head of the biceps tendon inserts directly into the superior labrum.  There are several variations of injuries that can occur to the superior labrum where the biceps anchor attaches.

Following a retrospective review of 700 shoulder arthroscopies, Snyder et al: Arthroscopy 1990, identified 4 types of superior labrum lesions involving the biceps anchor. Collectively they termed these SLAP lesions, in reference to their anatomic location: Superior Labrum extending from Anterior to Posterior. This was the original definition but as we continue to learn more about SLAP tears, they certainly do not always extend from anterior to posterior. But, the most important concept to know is that a SLAP lesion is an injury to the superior labrum near the attachment of the biceps anchor.

SLAP Tear Classification

Type I SLAP Lesions

Type I SLAP lesions were described as being indicative of isolated fraying of the superior labrum with a firm attachment of the labrum to the glenoid. These lesions are typically degenerative in nature. At this time, it is currently believed that the majority of the active population may have a Type I SLAP lesion and this is often not even considered pathological by many surgeons.

Type II SLAP Lesions

Type II SLAP lesions are characterized by a detachment of the superior labrum and the origin of the tendon of the long head of the biceps brachii from the glenoid resulting in instability of the biceps-labral anchor. These is the most common type of SLAP tear. When we receive a script from a surgeon to treat a “SLAP repair” he or she is more than likely talking about a Type II SLAP and surgery to re-attach the labrum and biceps anchor.

Three distinct sub-categories of type II SLAP lesions have been further identified by Morgan et al: Arthroscopy ’90. They reported that in a series of 102 patients undergoing arthroscopic evaluation 37% presented with an anterosuperior lesion, 31% with a posterosuperior lesion, and 31% exhibited a combined anterior and superior lesion.

These findings are consistent with my clinical observations of patients. Different types of patients and mechanisms of injuries will result in slightly different Type II lesions. For example, the majority of overhead athletes present with posterosuperior lesions while individuals who have traumatic SLAP lesions typically present with anterosuperior lesions. These variations are important when selecting which special tests to perform based on the patient’s history and mechanism of injury.

Type III SLAP Lesions

Type III SLAP lesions are characterized by a bucket-handle tear of the labrum with an intact biceps insertion. The labrum tears and flips into the joint similar to a meniscus. The important concept here is that the biceps anchor is attached, unlike a Type II.

Type IV SLAP Lesions

Type IV SLAP lesions have a bucket-handle tear of the labrum that extends into the biceps tendon. In this lesion, instability of the biceps-labrum anchor is also present, similar to that seen in the type II SLAP lesion. This is basically a combination of a Type II and III lesion.

What is complicated about this classification system is the fact that the Type I-IV scale is not progressively more severe. For example a Type III SLAP lesion is not bigger, or more severe, or indicative to more pathology than a Type II SLAP lesion.
To further complicate things, Maffet et al: AJSM ’95 noted that 38% of the SLAP lesions identified in their retrospective review of 712 arthroscopies were not classifiable using the I-IV terminology previously defined by Snyder. They suggested expanding the classification scale for SLAP lesions to a total of 7 categories, adding descriptions for types V-VII.
  • Type V SLAP lesions are characterized by the presence of a Bankart lesion of the anterior capsule that extends into the anterior superior labrum.
  • Type VI SLAP lesion involve a disruption of the biceps tendon anchor with an anterior or posterior superior labral flap tear.
  • Type VII SLAP lesions are described as the extension of a SLAP lesion anteriorly to involve the area inferior to the middle glenohumeral ligament.

These 3 types typically involve a concomitant pathology in conjunction with a SLAP lesion. Although they provided further classification, this terminology has not caught on and is not frequently used. For example, most people will refer to a Type V SLAP as a Type II SLAP with a concomitant Bankart lesion.

Since then there have been even more classification types described in the literature, up to at least 10 that I know of, but don’t worry, nobody really uses them.

Top 5 things you need to know about classifying SLAP lesions

Here’s all you need to know about classifying SLAP tears:

  1. Just worry about Type I-IV SLAP lesions and realize that any classification system above Type IV just means that there was a concomitant injury in addition to the SLAP tear.
  2. You can break down and group Type I and Type III lesions together. Both involved degeneration of the labrum but the biceps anchor is attached. Thus, these are not unstable SLAP lesions and are not surgically repaired. This makes surgery (just a simple debridement) and physical therapy easier.
  3. You can also break down and group Type II and Type IV lesions together. Both involve a detached biceps anchor and require surgery to stabilize the biceps anchor. Type IV SLAP tears are much more uncommon and will involve the repair and a debridement of the bucket handle tear.
  4. Type II lesions are by far the most common that you will see in the clinic and are almost always what a surgeon is referring to when speaking of a “SLAP repair.”  That being said, we are seeing trends towards NOT repairing SLAP II lesions, as they may be more common than once expected.  This is especially true in overhead athletes.
  5. We all may have a Type I lesion, it is basically just fraying and degeneration of the labrum.

Learn Exactly How I Evaluate and Treat the Shoulder

mike reinold shoulder seminar

If you want to learn even more about the shoulder, my online course at will teach you exactly how I evaluate and treat the shoulder.  It is packed with tons of educational content that will help you master the shoulder, including detailed information on the clinical examination and treatment of SLAP tears.

Humeral Fracture Following Biceps Tenodesis in a Baseball Pitcher

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At this year’s ASMI Injuries in Baseball course, one of the topics that we discussed at length was the use of biceps tendodesis in baseball pitchers.  Over the years, our understanding of SLAP lesions has evolved and many are advocating a biceps tenodesis procedure.  While this may be a viable option for older individuals, I have never been a fan of this in athletes that need to use their shoulder at maximum range of motion and velocity.  I just don’t think the concept of “if it hurts just cut if off” makes the most sense to me.

SEE ALSO: Is Biceps Tenodesis the Answer?

A recent case report in AJSM actually describes one of the biggest reasons why I am think we really need to question the use of biceps tenodesis in baseball pitchers: A humeral fracture.

humerus fracture after biceps tenodesis

The white arrow is the drill hole from the biceps tenodesis.  This came up at the ASMI course with the panel of surgeons, including Dr. James Andrews, Dr. Lyle Cain, and Dr. Xavier Duralde of the Braves.  The rotational torque observed on the humerus while pitching are extremely high.  Putting a screw in there scares me a bit.

SEE ALSO: Dr. Lyle Cain from the American Sports Medicine Institute discusses some facts and fiction related to the biceps tenodesis surgery.

What do you think?  Does this x-ray of a humeral fracture following a biceps tenodesis in a baseball pitcher scare you a little too?

Internal Impingement – What it is and How to Diagnose

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The latest webinar recording for Inner Circle members is now available below.

Internal Impingement – What it is and How to Diagnose

This month’s Inner Circle webinars discussed a one of the most requested topics to date and featured a TON of people online live!  We’ll cover:

  • What is internal impingement?
  • The difference between internal and subacromial impingement
  • Anatomical, biomechanical, and pathological reasons for developing internal impingement
  • What do athlete’s that have internal impingement feel?
  • The #1 test to perform to diagnose internal impingement
  • What else you should look for on examination to develop the best treatment program

The topic is so big, I need to break it down into 2 parts.  This first part will cover the etiology and diagnosis.  I will follow this up in the upcoming months with an entire webinar dedicated to how to treat internal impingement.

To access the webinar, please be sure you are logged in and are a member of the Inner Circle program.

Is a Biceps Tenodesis the Answer?

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I read a lot of stuff on the internet.  I like to keep up with a ton of blogs, websites, and journals to make sure I am on top of recent trends, but also to share with my readers.  I recently came across an article at Science Direct entitled Getting Athletes Back in the Game Sooner Following Shoulder Injuries.  Nice headline, right?  It made me want to click.

Interestingly, they were talking about how a biceps tenodesis can cut down the rehabilitation time from SLAP tears in comparison to a SLAP repair.  That wasn’t what I was expecting!

OK, would a tenodesis cut down (no pun intended…) the rehab time in comparison to a SLAP repair?  No doubt, I agree with that.  But I am not sure if this is what we want to do, especially in athletes, as the title of the article suggested.  Let’s dig into this deeper, but first, let’s discuss SLAP tears and what the biceps tenodesis surgery actually does.

What is a SLAP Tear and Biceps Tenodesis?

biceps labral complexI’ve covered superior labral tears, or SLAP tears extensively in the past.  If you don’t know much about SLAP tears, start there, but essentially a SLAP tear is a superior labral tear at the junction of where the long head of the biceps comes in and attaches to the superior labrum.  SLAP tears are common, and can be especially troublesome for overhead athletes.  (Photo from Wikipedia)

A biceps tenodesis is a surgical procedure that detaches the biceps attachment from the superior labrum and reattaches it to the humerus.  Here is a surgical demonstration from Smith and Nephew:

By removing the biceps, this essentially eliminates the patient’s pain from the SLAP lesion or biceps tendonitis, however at what consequence?  By performing a tenodesis, you are changing the anatomy of the shoulder and the function of the biceps.  This procedure has become more popular in older individuals, essentially those that chose a decrease in function for a decrease in pain.  But what about athletes, as the paper I mentioned above proposed was happening, can they return to sports faster by simply cutting the biceps off instead of trying to repair it?

One of the most popular studies on this subject was in AJSM in 2009.  The authors reported that the results of biceps tenodesis were superior to SLAP repairs in athletes with superior labral tears.  The authors mention both “overhead athletes” and “return to sport” in the paper, though they report the age range of subjects was 24-69 years old.  Furthermore, significant differences in age existed between the two groups, with the mean age of 37 years old in the SLAP repair group and mean age of 52 years old in the biceps tenodesis group.  One could certainly argue that the level of “sport” participation was different between the groups and could certainly influence their subjective satisfaction.

What is the Function of the Biceps?

Biomechanical studies have shown that the biceps labrum complex has a role in providing both translational and rotational stability, and that repair of a SLAP lesion restores this ability to provide static stability.  This is especially true in overhead athletes who need to use their arm in the abducted and externally rotated position.  Contraction of the long head of the biceps in this position has been shown to reduce anterior humeral head displacement, a functional that is critical in preventing throwing injuries.  In fact, peak biceps EMG activity has been shown to occur during this cocking phase of throwing, and has been shown to be higher in pitchers that have anterior instability.

Also, don’t forget that release of the long head of the biceps has been shown to increase superior humeral head migration by over 15%.

As all my readers know, superior humeral head migration is disadvantageous and causes many of the dysfunctions we see with the shoulder.  Our whole goal of most shoulder rehabilitation programs is to train the rotator cuff to dynamically stabilize to resist superior humeral head migration.  I’ve written about the role of rotator cuff fatigue in shoulder mechanics and how rotator cuff fatigue increases superior humeral head migration.

So if the biceps is involved with translational and rotational glenohumeral stability and helps prevent superior humeral head migration, is this something you want to sacrifice just to reduce pain?  How will this impact function, and more importantly, future injuries?

Is a Biceps Tenodesis the Answer?

Is there a role for biceps tenodesis?  I am sure there is.  I like the recommendations my friend Brian Busconi reports in this paper, stating that he likes to perform SLAP repairs, but will consider biceps tenodesis in patients over the age of 45.  This serves a different purpose and return to high level athletics is probably not as important to the patient than reducing their pain.  I have heard Dr. Altchek from New York report in meetings that he thinks biceps tenodesis may be an option, but one he reserves for those who fail a SLAP repair.   Still, I have to wonder what the long term effects of the biceps tenodesis will do on this patient population as well.  Will the increased superior humeral head cause rotator cuff pathology or degenerative changes?  Only time will tell.

There is also recent chatter about the use of the biceps tenodesis procedure in overhead athletes and the risk of humeral head fracture.  This is a consequence that must be considered.

Noted orthopedist, Dr. James Andrews was recently asked about the biceps and the potential for biceps tenodesis, to which he replied “The biceps is there for a purpose — it’s too intrinsically associated with the shoulder joint.  Until we know what the real function of it is, we’re stabbing in the dark.”  When asked if a biceps tenodesis is the answer to athletes returning to sport, similar to a Tommy John procedure, he replied “With Tommy John surgery, we’re actually restoring anatomy. In the case of biceps tenodesis, you’re deleting anatomy.”

SEE ALSO: Dr. Lyle Cain from Dr. Andrews’ American Sports Medicine Institute discusses some of the facts and fiction related to the biceps tenodesis surgery.

So, sadly, I don’t think we all learned a great new way “get athletes back in the game sooner following shoulder injuries” like the Science Direct title would suggest.  Perhaps I’m wrong, but I would have to agree with Dr. Andrews, I always prefer procedures that restore anatomy when possible.  Don’t get me wrong, a biceps tenodesis has it’s place.  But I’m not sure if it is the magical secret to getting athletes back faster, there just has to be some consequences.

What has your experience been?  Have you seen many athletes opt for a biceps tenodesis rather than a SLAP repair?

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Choosing Which SLAP Special Test to Perform During Your Examination

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There are so many different special tests for superior labral, or SLAP tears, how do you chose which to perform?  I have a couple of different ways that I determine which tests to perform, but first, lets see what the evidence has to say regarding all these tests.

Special tests for SLAP tears have come under much scrutiny in recent years as conflicting reports on the accuracy of these tests have been published.  What you will find in research reports regarding these tests is that the original citation for each of these tests seem to have extremely high sensitivity, specificity, and negative and positive predictive values.  A good example is the active compression test.  The original article by O’Brien had shown 100% sensitivity, 98.5% specificity, positive predictive value of 94%, and a negative predictive value of 100%.  These are pretty high numbers, so high that they are actually even better than MRI!  Since then, no other other author has shown values like this.

This is not isolated to the active compression test, almost every SLAP test described is similar.

Dessaur and Magray reviewed 17 peer-reviewed manuscripts and noted that the majority of papers reporting highly accurate tests for SLAP lesions were of low quality with the results not supported by other researchers.  Jones and Galluch agreed and noted that subsequent independent testing of SLAP tests showed much poorer performance that the originally published studies.  There are many other research reviews and meta-analysis studies that agree.

An interesting study from Oh et al in AJSM showed that a combination of tests used together may yield the best results.  They state that if you combine a couple of tests that have shown to have good sensitivity with a couple of tests that show good specificity, they reached sensitivity and specificity values between 70-95%.  This makes sense to me as none of these tests are perfect, think of it as covering your bases with a few tests.

I feel that this may be for multiple reasons.

Different patient populations will present with different mechanisms of injury.  In most studies, several variations of SLAP lesions are grouped together to obtain enough statistical power to analyze the data. It is my opinion that different tests will result in different specificity and sensitivity results based on the variation of SLAP lesion present. For example, overhead athletes with a type II or IV posterosuperior peel back SLAP lesion may be more symptomatic during tests that simulate the aggravating position and mechanism of injury, such as the biceps load II, clunk, crank, pain provocation tests, and pronated load test; whereas patients with type I or III SLAP lesions due to a traumatic type of injury may be more symptomatic during tests that provide compression to the labral complex such as the active-compression, compression-rotation and anterior slide tests.

Further investigation on the diagnostic characteristics of these tests based on the type of SLAP lesion is warranted.

This article is part of a 4-part series on SLAP Lesions

Choosing Which SLAP Test to Perform During Your Examination

I know it sounds cliché, but first and foremost, your subjective examination should lead your clinical tests.  If you patient is a construction worker who fell on an outstretched arm, you probably don’t need to perform any tests that simulate a peel-back lesion.  And vice-versa, if your patient is a recreational tennis player with a desk job that only feels pain while serving in tennis, you can probably jump straight to the peel-back tests.

For simplicity sake, lets divide SLAP tears into three categories (for more information read my post on classifying SLAP lesions):

  • Overhead Athletes that present with peel-back lesions
  • Compression injuries from someone that falls onto an outstretched arm or on the side of the shoulder.  This will compress and sheer the labrum, similar to a meniscus tear.
  • Traction injuries from a sudden eccentric biceps contraction.  This one is the least common and I even have some mild doubts of this mechanism.

Special tests for SLAP tears

Choosing a SLAP Test Based on The Mechanism of Injury

Here are the tests I perform based on the type of injury mechanism.  I actually find this to be much more helpful in selecting my tests than by selecting based on research results only.

Remember, we have no idea the exact patient population or injury mechanism for those research reports, you can not go on them alone!  You do, however, have this information for the patient that is sitting in the exam room right in front of you!

For detailed descriptions of each test, please refer back to my article on special tests for SLAP lesions.

Peel-Back Injury (Overhead Athlete):

  • Pronated load
  • Resisted Supination ER
  • Biceps Load

Compression Injury:

  • Active compression
  • Compression rotation
  • Clunk

Traction Injury:

  • Dynamic Speed’s
  • Active compression

Choosing a Test Based on The Type of SLAP Tear

If you want to try to determine the type of SLAP tear, Type I, Type II, Type III, or Type IV, this is more challenging but you can try to give it a shot based on the below table.  This is definitely more of guess work, but the more information we can try to obtain the better.

Remember that each of the tests described will try to reproduce symptoms in different ways, you should try to correlate the pathology of the different types of SLAP lesions with specific special tests.  Use this as a grain of salt, it may be helpful but hasn’t been backed by research to show how well this classification works (this more for just a game I play against myself!)

Type I SLAP:

  • Compression rotation

Type II SLAP:

  • Pronated load
  • Resisted Supination ER
  • Biceps Load

Type III and IV SLAP:

  • Clunk and Crank
  • Compression Rotation

In summary, the research results of the numerous SLAP tests are extremely variable and should not be relied on solely to determine which test to perform on your patient.  In contrast, I propose that you:

  • Use the patient’s mechanism of injury to lead your decision on which group of tests to perform.  The subjective exam is important!
  • Perform a cluster of a few tests for that group that have shown decent sensitivity and specificity to enhance your results using a group of tests rather than just one.
  • Don’t hang your hat on one test.  It may be good for a specific patient population and not another
  • Don’t get frustrated, SLAP lesions are difficult to detect on clinical examination.  When in doubt refer back to the doctor for a MRI.

When Do You Perform These Tests?

Now that you know the real key is understanding “when” to pick each test, I want to walk you through all these in one of my Inner Circle webinars.  In my mind, they all are slightly different and may even be better at detecting different types of SLAP lesions.  This Inner Circle webinar discusses this and shows you my clinical algorithm on how and why I perform special tests to diagnose a SLAP tear:

Learn Exactly How I Evaluate and Treat the Shoulder

shoulder seminarIf you want to learn even more about the shoulder, my online course will teach you exactly how I evaluate and treat the shoulder.  It is packed with tons of educational content that will help you master the shoulder, including detailed information on the clinical examination and treatment of SLAP tears.